Make Prejudice and Discrimination a Subject in School Essay Example for Free

Make Prejudice and Discrimination a Subject in School Essay Because of the immigration in the world and the great assimilation that are in progress prejudices and discrimination are more important than never before. People need to learn from young ages that it doesnt matter where you come from or what color your skin is, the only thing that matters is your personality and how you respond to other people. Yesterday, in Stockholm, I was talking to my cousin and she told me that I never should live in Tensta because, according to her, its a very dangerous place because it only lives criminals there. Personally Im sure that the majority of the people in Tensta are normal, nice people that never have done anything criminal its only her prejudices that say something different. I see every day how common prejudices are, my friends have prejudices, my family has prejudices and I, that see myself as a very prejudices free person, find sometimes that even I have some prejudices. Discrimination is unfortunately also common in our society. A while ago I read a study that professors at the Linnà © university in Kalmar had written and it showed that the majority of the companies in Sweden discriminated people with Arabic names. If there were two persons with exactly the same qualities and experience in the study, and one of them was named Martin Johansson and the other Abd al Hakim only the first would be called to an interview while the second would be sorted away immediately. But I think that it is easy to forget and that we have to remember that discrimination can work in every way white against black, black against white, men against women, women against men, and so on. Therefore I believe that we have to work for a society that is equal on every scale. I think that a way to solve the problem with prejudices and discrimination is to make it a main subject in school. In that way every kid in Sweden would get information about and be able to discus prejudices and discrimination every week from the age of 6 to 16. I believe that information and knowledge are the key to everything, and in this case the key to an equal society without prejudices and discrimination.

Role of the Nurse in HIV Prevention and Care

Role of the Nurse in HIV Prevention and Care INTRODUCTION This brief considers role of the nurse in the HIV prevention and care in the black African community. The document considers empirical literature from academic, governmental, and other sources. It is argued that the available evidence is too scant to warrant conclusive inferences about the role of nurses in HIV care and management for this ethnic group. This is compounded by ambiguities about the role of nurses in promoting sexual health, and uncertainty about the appropriate criteria for evaluating their impact on the African community. Black Africans in Britain According to the Department of Health (2005b) approximately 480,000 people living in England (less than 1% of the population) have Sub-Saharan African heritage, by birth and /or descent. More than 75% live in the Greater London area, mostly in inner London Boroughs. Compared to the rest of the UK population, Africans tend to be younger, well educated (just 13% of Africans reported have no educational qualifications), more likely to be unemployed and living in rented (often overcrowded) accommodation. Asylum legislation has meant that a significant proportion of the population has questionable migration status in the UK. New arrivals in the UK, including asylum seekers, are offered a medical examination that may include a HIV test if this is requested, or the medical examiner judges that a test is necessary. The test result is not necessarily considered when an asylum application is processed. Many Africans live in isolation, separated from friends and family back in Africa, (for asylum seekers), with no access to public funds, and struggling to adapt to a new culture (Millar Murray, 1999). Many are struggling to learn English. Sexuality is heavily influenced by traditional (tribal) beliefs, taboos, customs, religion, and spirituality. HIV is virtually a taboo subject. Thus, a sero-positive status has a significant effect on various aspects of a persons life, including problems dealing with the diagnosis, ambivalence about whether or not to test, gender issues (e.g. whether or not to breastfeed), and coming to terms with the possibility of death (e.g. implications for children, family) (Miller and Murray, 1999; Doyal Anderson, 2005). The prevalence of HIV infection is high in both the immigrant and British born/resident African populations. Asylum seekers and others with unsatisfactory immigration status have limited access to public funds, live in poverty, and generally avoid utilising public health services, until illness is at an advanced stage. Black Women There is considerable research on the plight of African women as distinct from men (e.g. Withell, 2000; Tabi Frimpong, 2003). Much of this literature highlights aspects of their increased susceptibility, or predisposing factors or experiences. Motherhood is an extremely important goal for many African women, so that unprotected sex becomes a cultural necessity. Doyal and Anderson (2004) document the devastating impact of HIV on the lives of African women living in Britain. Many women harbour serious concerns about the health of their offspring. There is a distinct reluctance to give birth to a sick (HIV-positive child). Many women have a vague immigration status, whereby they may not be entitled to state benefits, have no work permit and/or rely on charities for subsistence. The immigration issue is multidimensional. Many women live with a chronic fear of deportation, perhaps remaining in doors for days at a time, and/or refusing to open the door when the bell rings. Then there is the poor housing. Some put up with unsanitary and crumbling accommodation due to lack of funds and the awareness that housing conditions back home in Africa are much worse. Furthermore, some individuals become distressed or depressed because they are isolated from friends and family back home, and for a prolonged (and perhaps indefinite) period of time. Finally, many women may be unsure of their health care entitlements in the UK, and hence be unaware off and/or fail to utilise appropriate HIV care services. Additionally, religious faith remains a stable and salient characteristic of Black African culture. In the face of adversity many women turn to religion for hope and deliverance. Doyal and Anderson (2004) quote one woman: I have turned to God. I have really got to know more about God now. I know God exists . God is in control. I know there is an afterlife here (p.1736). The danger is that some women may seek therapeutic remedy from God, as a substitute for seeking medical care. Epidemiology According to Department of Health (2005a) figures provided by the Communicable Disease Surveillance Center (CDSC), up to 12,558 black Africans living in England by 2003 were HIV-positive. This figure was based records from HIV treatment clinics and care centers in England, and accounts for 36% of the total number of people in England living with HIV. In 2003 69% of heterosexual HIV-positive people (or 2624 individuals) were probably infected in sub-Saharan Africa. The majority of cases (65%) were female. In 2002 black Africans accounted for 70% of the total number of diagnosed HIV infections. Furthermore, â€Å"of the 15,726 heterosexual men and women seen for care in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland in 2003 for whom ethnicity was reported, 70% (11068) were black African, 19% (3009) were white and 4% (657) black Caribbean. Africans feature in all the main transmission routes for HIV†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p.12) (see Figure 1). HIV positive Africans tend to be diagnosed much later in the course of the HIV disease, and show low uptake of clinical monitoring and antiretroviral treatments. Focus: The North West of England The North West HIV/AIDS Monitoring Unit (2005a, 2005b), based at the Center for Public Health at Liverpool John Moores University, regularly and comprehensively Figure 1 Distribution of HIV infections (those seen for care) across ethnic groups in 2003 monitors HIV trends in Northwest of England. The surveys are supported by the Health Protection Agency and the Northwest Public Health Observatory, and cover three main regions: Cumbria and Lancashire, Cheshire and Merseyside, and Greater Manchester. The Units data reflects both new and total HIV cases and dates back to 1996. The total number of HIV cases virtually doubled over the nine-year period from 1996 to 2005, rising from fewer than 300 in 1996 to over 600 by mid 2005. The data suggests that black Africans living in the Northwest have an unusually highly risk of contracting HIV compared to other ethnic groups. This trend applies to both newly diagnosed HIV cases from January to December in 2004 and 2005, and total HIV cases by the end of these periods. Also, this pattern seems to echo national trends. Africans accounted for almost a quarter (23.1%) of total HIV/AIDS cases (3574), by far the highest figure of all ethnic minority groups. For comparison, black Caribbeans made up less than one percent (0.7%, or 26 cases). The vast majority of black Africans (93.1%, or 769 of 826 cases) contracted HIV through heterosexual interactions. This contrasts sharply with Caucasian cases, of whom more than three-quarters (75.2%) contracted the virus through homosexual intercourse. When the data was collapsed by gender, again, black African women accounted for the majority (63.4%) of the 857 females diagnosed with HIV. These findings may be confounded by significant variations in the distribution of ethnic groups across the UK and native (British born) versus immigrant status. For example, population census figures show a much higher population density for black Africans compared with black Caribbeans in the Northwest regions. This may partly account for the over representation of Africans in some categories. Furthermore, it is not clear whether patterns observed are statistically significant. On the other hand the proportion of Africans amongst new and total HIV cases is over represented when compared with the proportion of Africans in the overall UK population. Current Health Strategies Prior to 2001 there was no official health strategy for promoting sexual health in Britain. In July 1999 the Secretary of State for Health presented a white paper to Her Majesty, the Queen, titled Saving Lives: Our Healthier Nation (The Stationary Office, 1999). Curiously the HIV/AIDS threat received little mention in what was otherwise a comprehensive document on the Governments health policy. The lack of an elaborate national strategy for HIV/AIDS meant that the steady increases through the 1990s in HIV-related morbidity and mortality (North West HIV/AIDS Monitoring Unit, 2005a) went virtually unchecked. This all changed in 2001 when the Department of Health published the National Strategy for Sexual Health and HIV (Department of Health, 2001, 2002, 2005a, 2005b). The strategy outlines several generic aims: Reducing the transmission of HIV and other STIs (Sexually Transmitted Infections); Reducing the prevalence of undiagnosed HIV and STIs (in other words, increasing HIV testing for people at risk). Improve health and social care for HIV-infected people; Reducing the social stigma associated with sexually transmitted diseases, notably HIV. In 2005 the Department of Health published more detailed objectives for HIV prevention specifically within the African community (Department of Health, 2005b). These objectives were as follows; HIV Prevention: 1.Reducing transmission (sexual and vertical); 2.Reducing prevalence of undiagnosed HIV cases; 3.Eliminating the stigma associated with sero-positive status. Health and Social Care: 1.Ensuring that HIV-positive Africans have equal access to services; 2.Ensuring that those services are culturally sensitive; 3.Ensuring that service delivery is based on assessment of individual need; 4.Facilitating access to testing; 5.Making special provision for children and adolescents; 6.Improving adherence to anti-HIV treatment regimes; 7.Creating better access to education, employment and leisure; 8.Supporting carers and families; Eliminating social exclusion is minimized. Several strategies for prevention are outlined. The first plan is that HIV prevention must operate at both an individual and structural level. Prevention activity at the individual level must address knowledge deficiencies (e.g., awareness of available health services), tackle inappropriate attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, and intentions, and teach relevant skills (e.g., condom negotiation). These goals can be achieved through various interventions including one-to-one counseling, out-reach work, telephone help lines, the internet, provision of sperm washing services, and clinical interventions to prevent mother-to-child transmission. Structural prevention measures include reducing poverty, introducing and implementing appropriate laws and regulations, and modifying societal factors (e.g., social norms, stigma, discrimination), and organisational factors (e.g., supporting community health organisations). Structural change can be achieved through group, community, and socio-political level interventions. Strategies for social care include: making peer support available at special ‘flashpoints’ of maximum need (such as at diagnosis, or during times of emotional distress), in order to improve adherence to treatment regimes; and providing support, advice, and education to sero-positive people, to help them to return to education. Additionally, the Department of Health (2005a) has clarified how the National Strategy for Sexual Health can be implemented by primary medical services, through four contracting routes: Primary Medical Services (PMS), General Medical Services (GMS), Alternative Provider Medical Services (APMS), and PCT-led Medical Services (PCTMS). All four services rely heavily on nurses, and â€Å"provide flexibility and opportunities to tailor services around the needs of the patients† (p.17). Thus, in theory, the current sexual health strategy can be tailored to meet the needs of minority ethnic groups. RATIONALE Black Africans are the minority ethnic subgroup most at risk for contracting HIV/AIDS in the UK. It is therefore widely acknowledged that this group has special care and management requirements (Department of Health, 2005a). Gaps in Care and Practice This report reviews the literature on nursing HIV care provision specifically for the black African community. The review identifies various salient issues that need to be addressed: 1. Uncertainty about the role and effectiveness of nurses in prevention and care of this ethnic group. 2. Insufficient empirical evidence on various aspects of prevention/care including; the role of nurse in facilitating uptake of antenatal testing by African women, and HIV testing by Africans in general; the degree of involvement and effectiveness of nurses in community-based African HIV/AIDS projects; sensitivity to cultural factors in, palliative care, and self-management; Dealing with the HIV stigma and its effect on health service utilisation; and nurses roles in supporting involuntary care provision. 3. Inadequate evidence on the role that African nurses can play in reducing cultural barriers, and providing liaison and training services. LITERATURE REVIEW Literature searches were performed using several electronic data bases: PSYCHINFO (BIDS), INTERNURSE, Academic Search Premier (EBSCOhost databases), British Medical Journal On-line, HIGHWIRE Press, SOCIAL CARE Online, Department of Health database, and the Internet. Various combinations of the following key words were used: nurse, nursing, care, African, black, ethnic, minority, women, sub-Saharan Africa, community, HIV, AIDS, palliative, and antenatal[1]. Priority was given to studies published from the late 1990s, although due to the paucity of literature some earlier studies are reviewed. Furthermore, emphasis was placed on UK studies. However, limited evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa is considered to highlight certain cultural issues. Finally, the review is structured in relation to prevention (including antenatal testing and transmission through breastfeeding), and health and social care (Department of Health, 2005a). The Nurses Role The National Strategy for Sexual Health and HIV (Department of Health, 2001, 2002) illuminated the rise in HIV sero-prevalence for ethnic minority groups in Britain. Nursing care was identified as essential in managing sexually transmitted diseases and promoting sexual health in these groups. The prevention and care strategies for African communities, specified by the Department of Health (2005b), provide a framework for nurses to tailor their roles to meet the cultural needs of sero-positive Africans. Miller and Murray ((1999) provide a comprehensive account of some of these cultural characteristics, specifically regarding response to a positive diagnosis, parenting issues especially for HIV-infected mothers, problems of disclosure, attitudes towards death, immigration issues, and common health care dilemmas, and effective engagement between carer and patient. Training According to the Medical Foundation for AIDS and Sexual Health (2003) nurses do not receive any special training in HIV care and prevention. The Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) approves special HIV training courses for nurses but these are not offered in all universities and colleges, and may be optional at institutions that offer them. According to Campbell (2004, p.169), Pre-registration training for nurses does not include mandatory education relating to sexual health services. Nurses working in sexual health gain post-basic education in an ad-hoc manner through working in the specialty, and by undertaking specialist post-registration courses. Moreover, although the NMC regularly monitors courses, it does not scrutinise individual courses that confer no special qualification, so that they may be considerable variability in the quality of courses offered in different institutions. Thus, it is possible that a large percentage of nurses have no special knowledge or skills in HIV prevention/care for ethnic minority groups. It follows that many nurses that may be ill prepared to deal with the particular HIV needs of African communities. However, nurses who work in Greater London, and hence are regularly exposed to African patients/communities, may quickly acquire some degree of ad-hoc expertise. By contrast nurses based in other parts of the country with smaller African communities may be especially uninformed and inexperienced. Role Ambiguity In the absence of mandatory HIV training, there may be some ambiguity about the precise roles/tasks nurses are required to perform in HIV care/prevention. Campbell (2004) notes that career pathways are patchy and ill defined, and it may be necessary for nurses to undertake placements in key areas of sexual health. Certain aspects of HIV care are applicable to other diseases, and hence may form part of a nurse’s standard training and job description (e.g. antenatal testing, patient pre-admission assessments). However, certain tasks are specific to HIV and/or a particular population group. Some nurses may be uncertain whether such roles are within their jurisdiction. For example, whose job is it to reduce the powerful HIV stigma that prevents many sero-positive Africans from testing for HIV, and/or benefiting from family support? Who is responsible for addressing cultural taboos and totems? Palliative Care This refers to nursing care aimed at maximising the quality of life for terminally ill patients, for example by reducing pain and discomfort. The National Council for Hospice and Specialist Palliative Care Services (NCH-SPCS) identifies seven domains of palliative care: increasing patient/carer understanding of diagnosis/prognosis; alleviating pain/symptoms; facilitating patient independence; reducing patients/carers negative affect (e.g. anxiety, depression); soliciting support from other agencies; advising on appropriate care locations as illness progresses; supporting families/carers, before/after death. To what extent do nurses meet these requirements met in sero-positive black African patients? There is a paucity of research addressing the palliative care needs of black African patients specifically. However, some studies have examined the needs of ethnic minority groups in general (Jack et al, 2001; Diver et al, 2003). Various barriers to effective palliative care for ethnic minorities have been identified including communication difficulties and the lack of trained interpreters (Jack et al, 2001). Diver et al (2003) conducted a qualitative study to identify the specific palliative needs of ethnic minority patients attending a groups regarding palliative care. Participants comprised two Jamaicans, one Indian, and one from the Ukraine, but no black Africans, who attended the day-care center once or twice weekly, for up to a year. Several key themes emerged. One concerned the individual needs of the patients, which were not related specifically related to culture (e.g. diet, religion, day care, avoiding social isolation). Two other themes highlighted attempts to fit in with the dominant culture, for example by eating English foods and communicating with staff in English. Another theme highlighted positive perceptions of palliative care: participants expressed gratitude to staff, with one individual noting â€Å"the Macmillan nurse had been sympathetic and had not pressurised her when she decided to stop having chemotherapy† (p.395). However, participants reported that staf f had not inquired about their culture albeit they simultaneously felt their cultural needs were being addressed. Although Diver et al’s (2003) study involved a very small sample, the findings suggest that nursing staff can effectively meet the palliative needs of minority patients. Some evidence suggests that nursing care can be more effective when a liaison professional is involved. Jack et al (2001) assessed the value of a ‘liaison’ worker that mediates between ethnic minority patients, their families, and health care staff. This study focused on the role of an ethnic minorities ‘liaison’ officer, appointed in May 2000. The workers brief is to facilitate palliative care amongst the Asian community specifically. Thus, he/she helps with communication, religious, gender-specific, bereavement, and other issues. However, several case studies are presented that illustrate the difficulties inherent in using a liaison person. For example, the liaison role is emotionally demanding and health care staff sometimes assume the liaison worker has medical expertise. Nevertheless, the concept of a liaison worker may improve the job performance of nursing staff involved in palliative care. Hill and Penso (1995) make recommendations that tailor palliative care to the needs of ethnic minority groups. These include: ethnic monitoring; having an equal opportunity policy; enforcing a code of conduct; staff recruitment/training; developing a communication strategy; health promotion; facilitating culture-specific care provision; appropriate food policies; community health initiatives. Given the paucity of research evidence focusing of HIV-positive black African patients in the UK, it remains unclear the extent to which these strategies facilitate effective palliative care in this population group. Some evidence is available concerning palliative care delivery in sero-positive women living in Sub-Saharan Africa (Defilippi, 2000; Gwyther, 2005). This evidence may provide additional insights that may apply to the care of black Africans who have emigrated to the UK. Gwyther (2005) documents the nature of palliative care in South Africa. Here, hospice care is primarily performed at home, with only a few inpatient units available on a short-term basis to selected patients (e.g. those with serve symptom control problems). A comprehensive community-based home care programme has been established, in which patient care is provided by the local community (e.g. extended family, neighbours), but managed by health care (hospice) staff. Thus, there has been a shift away from the conventional hospice domiciliary nurse as the primary caregiver to community care workers, who are trained, supervised, and supported by the professional nurse (p.113). This South African model has several advantages when applied to the UK theatre: Firstly, training extended family members (and perhaps even neighbours) in palliative care, with the aim of managing AIDS, and decreasing transmission of the HIV virus, may help resolve problems of communication, diet, custom, and other culture-specific issues that the patient considers relevant. This model goes some way to address Hill and Pensos (1995) recommendations for recruitment/training, effective communication, culture-specific care, suitable food policies, and community health initiatives. The professional nurse, free from some primary responsibilities of care, may be able to commit more resources to ethnic monitoring, enforcing codes of conduct, and ensuring equal opportunities in practice. Evidence-Based Practice There is a growing requirement in nursing and (other medical specialties) for evidence-based medicine/decision making (Thompson, et al, 2004). Evidence-based practice is particularly essential in the care of minority groups due to the relatively greater level of cultural ignorance in health care about ethnic minority customs compared with the dominant culture (Serrant-Green, 2004). There is a paucity of research assessing the degree to which nurses refer to empirical evidence when making clinical decisions about black African HIV patients. Thompson et al (2004) suggest that, in reality, nurses rarely consult evidence when making clinical decisions, irrespective of the patients’ background. Instead they are much more likely to consult their colleagues for information for advice. This is worrying because clinical decisions can be made about black-African patients based on incorrect assumptions rather than fact. For example, Gibb et al (1998) highlight the possibility that nurse midwifes may fail to offer antenatal HIV-testing to black African women, for fear of appearing discriminatory. Yet, there is little or no evidence about how black women may actually perceive such offers. Overall, there is a paucity of research on the role and effectiveness of nurses in delivering health and social care to the African community. Studies that focus on â€Å"black† patients (i.e. Afro-Caribbean or African parentage) cannot be generalised to Sub-Saharan Africans as HIV/AIDS incidence and prevalence is significantly different for these groups, suggesting different health care requirements. Similarly, data collected from Asians, Bangladeshis and other UK minority groups is generally inapplicable as the cultures are vastly different. The role of African Nurses A significant number of black African nurses work for the NHS. These individuals may play an important role in facilitating HIV prevention and care in the African community (Andalo, 2004; UNISON, 2005). There are two ways this may happen. Firstly, African nurses can serve as in-house liaison workers, improving communication and eliminating cultural barriers between the health service and African communities. Secondly, African nurses can help in educating other health-professionals on fundamental cultural issues, both in relation to the African community as whole, and individual sero-positive patients. The Department of Health (2000b) acknowledges the significant contributions of African nurses to sexual (and other) health issues in the African community, in the form of the Mary Seacole Leadership Awards. A recent article published by BioMedCentral (Batata, 2005) indicates that over 3000 nurses trained in Sub-Saharan Africa were registered to work in the UK in 2002/2003. These nurses originated from eight countries (South Africa, Nigeria, Zimbabwe, Kenya, Zambia, Malawi, Botwana and Mauritius), most of which have high HIV sero-positive prevalence rates. It therefore follows that these professionals will be very familiar with HIV preventive and care measures that work effectively with African communities. Approximately a quarter of all the foreign trained nurses registered during 2002/2003 (i.e. including nurses from non-African countries) worked in or near London, with 49% based in other parts of England, suggesting that there is a significant nurse pool available to support African communities in the London area. Unfortunately, there is a lack of research evidence on the role of African nurses in facilitating HIV care and prevention in African communities. Most studies focus on immigration, recruitment, or discrimination issues, rather than job performance and impact on care provision for local communities. The World Health Organisation (2003) indicates that one of the three top non-EU source countries for international nurses working in the NHS is from a Sub-Saharan African country (South Africa). The number of nurses recruited from Zimbabwe has increased recently. Nevertheless, recruitment and retention remain a problem. Although the NHS is thought to have one of the most effective nurse recruitment schemes in the public sector, there are still problems recruiting African nurses. For example, Andalo (2004, p.17) notes that although there has a been a significant increase in the number of Africans applying for nurse diploma courses, the rejection rate was more than fifty percent higher for African compared with white applicants. However, an argument for more recruitment can be better formulated given empirical evidence on the value of African nurses in promoting HIV prevention and care in their community. Department of Health (2005b) highlights the â€Å"need for basic information regarding HIV transmission, testing, and treatment. In particular, cultural practices that place some Africans at particular risk of transmitting or acquiring HIV requires specific, culturally competent attention† (p.13). Community nurses play an important role in this regard (Hoskins, 2000). Moreover, effective dissemination of knowledge requires collaborations between health professionals and agencies, access to services, and other recommended measures (Department of Health, 2000a, 2001, 2002, 2005a, 2005b). Community Nursing Community nursing care for sero-positive Africans in Britain has expanded rapidly over the last decade, reflecting a national shift in emphasis towards community care (McGarry, 2004). The Department of Health framework for prevention and care emphasised the importance of partnerships between HIV prevention agencies, Primary Care Trusts, local African community-based organisations, and other establishments (Department of Health, 2005b). According to the Department of Health (2005b), over 75% of black Africans in Britain live within Greater London. The largest concentrations live in Inner London Boroughs, which also have high sero-prevalence rates. Thus, the role of community nursing in the Greater London area is of particular interest. There is some evidence of collaboration between different agencies. One south London HIV partnership incorporates up to fourteen HIV prevention organisations, including several African-based projects: One African project covers up to nine catchment areas (Croydon, Kingston, Lambeth, Lewisham, Merton, Richmond, Southwark, Sutton, Wandsworth), and promotes the access to and utilisation of local HIV care and support services. This project recently launched a new treatment service designed to encourage men to adhere to treatment regimens. There is a paucity of research on the efficacy of such partnerships in reducing the spread of HIV in the black African Community. More importantly, there is limited empirical evidence on the involvement and impact of community nurses in these projects. The partnership in south London offers complementary HIV care services across the local area. Some of these services are available from local HIV clinics, were nursing staff presumably play a key role. Furthermore, there appears to be specific community nursing provision for children and families. For example a childrens hospital in Croydon offers nursing care for HIV-infected children and their families. Community nursing services are also available for adults. A study was commissioned to review progress on African HIV prevention initiatives in Enfield and Haringey, from 1997 to 2002. The investigation collected data on HIV-prevention needs, and voluntary and statutory sector provision, all of which are implemented by nurses (e.g. health visitors, community nurses, nurse midwifes). It was found that a lay referral system, operated solely by friends and family, worked effectively. Medical support from nurses and other health professionals was requested when symptoms become too serious. Compared with other ethnic groups HIV-positive Africans were more reluctant to test for HIV, and those who were sero-positive showed lower uptake of anti-retroviral treatments. Furthermore, there was evidence of poor attendance at clinical monitoring sessions, and it was argued that lat

UN Human Trafficking Prevention Protocol An Analysis

UN Human Trafficking Prevention Protocol An Analysis Human trafficking is an ever-growing global criminal concern and a prominent humanitarian crisis, with as many as an estimated twenty-seven million people being trafficked globally each year. Traditional approaches to combat this global phenomenon has been largely ineffective, as globalization has revolutionized the practices and process in which it is carried out. Trafficking at its core involves the objectification of persons into illicit market commodities – persons who, through deception, force or coercion, are transported and sold for the purpose of exploitation. In recent years, increasing awareness of this growing criminal trend throughout the international community has urged international bodies to take immediate action. As a response to this crisis, one critical document, titled the United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, was drafted. Albeit being introduced only in 2000, this Protocol is a significant law enforcement accomplis hment, and is the first and only international agreement of its kind to provide many detailed provisions for the protection and assistance of victims of transnational crime. Despite this, the UN Trafficking Protocol has proven to have limited effectiveness in combating and controlling human trafficking and modern slavery, particularly in certain countries like Thailand. While it has enhanced transnational cooperation in tackling this issue, it fails to take into account, and thereby does not provide solutions for, non-compliance, a corrupt criminal justice system, as well as the reintegration of victims back into society. While the purpose of the Protocol is to prevent and combat trafficking in persons, protect and assist victims of trafficking, and to promote cooperation among State Parties, the provisions providing for the implementation and enforcement of these measures are weak. Each of these provisions begins with the permissive language that State Parties â€Å"shall adopt or establish†¦as may be necessary†, â€Å"shall endeavour to†, and â€Å"shall consider†¦in appropriate cases† implementing various protection or assistive measures for victims. For example, Article 7 requires State Parties only to consider providing temporary or permanent residence in its territory in appropriate cases. While this provides the flexibility to craft and implement policies and laws that best suit the needs of various State Parties, the lack of any hard obligation or enforcement measures could potentially undermine political commitment to the Protocol, since compliance is purely on a voluntary basis. This lack of obligation can be seen in Thailand – one of the signatories of the Protocol – where young girls deemed to be trafficking victims are not granted temporary legal documents in accordance to Thai law, and therefore are not allowed to leave the shelter grounds (Thrupkaew, 2009). This goes against Article 8.4 of the UN Trafficking Protocol, which mentions State Party shall agree to issue travel documents to victims of trafficking who is without proper documentation, to facilitate their travel to and re-enter its territory. Hence, this freedom and flexibility to interpret the Protocol has undermined its effectiveness in implementing and enforcing the provisions stated to provide assistance to the victims of trafficking. Similarly, the corruption of local law enforcement in countries like Thailand and Cambodia have hindered efforts to curb human trafficking, as they provide a system of protection and safe-haven for key stakeholders involved in the process. From petty bribery to large-scale misappropriation of funds, corruption is rife throughout the criminal justice process in many countries, and has serious implications both for the human rights of detainees and the efficient administration of justice. The Protocol, despite its concerted effort to counteract human trafficking, is nonetheless at the mercy of the local authorities to implement and enforce measures on the ground. As mentioned by Thrupkaew, the root cause of much of the suffering in the developing world is the failure of the criminal justice system to protect the poor from the violence and brutality that robs them of their basic subsistence and liberty. In Cambodia, the police are notorious for their involvement in trafficking, through extortion of protection money, assault and rape of sex workers and trafficking victims (Thrupkaew, 2009). In Thailand, the politicians do not take sex slavery seriously, and while there exist full and complete laws that forbid enslavement, trafficking and exploitation, they are not enforced (Bales, 1999, p.72). As such, although the Protocol does provide an international legislative framework and is very comprehensive in its scope of human trafficking, it is ineffective as local authorities are more concerned about their own personal well-being than national political concerns, and thus do not enforce these measures on the ground. Furthermore, while the Protocol provides the necessary provisions for the physical, psychological and social recovery of victims of trafficking as mentioned in Article 6.3, it is not implemented, and little is being done to help facilitate their reintegration into society. Many victims who are freed and taken to shelters are found to suffer from aggression, depression, and emotional instability. Yet, these shelters are merely surface attempts at abiding by the Protocol, and victims are robbed of the opportunity to overcome their trauma and recover from the physical and emotional damage they have suffered. This is especially prevalent in Thailand, where psychological counselling is effectively unknown, and little therapeutic work is done with girls freed from brothels (Bales, 1999, p.59). There is also a strong possibility of re-enslavement, especially if the girls rescued are foreigners who don’t speak the local language (Bales, 1999, p.66). This shows that the Protocol has fa iled in not only providing the necessary services for victims to recover from the emotional trauma that they have faced from this violence, but also the prevention of victims of trafficking from re-victimization, as stated in article 9.1.b of the Protocol. However, we cannot understate the effectiveness of the UN Trafficking Protocol, because it is the first universal instrument intended to advance the global movement against human exploitation through collective action. Consequently, it is a reflection of the political will of international governments to combat human trafficking, evidenced by the widespread ratification of 166 State Parties as a first step in the expression of that political commitment. Moreover, the Protocol’s definition of trafficking and what amounts to exploitation is universally accepted as the most comprehensive definition that has informed various international counter-trafficking legal frameworks. This has aided prosecutors worldwide in providing assistance, protection and advocating for the rights of trafficked persons. Despite this, coordination efforts on a national level are still grossly lacking, especially among various law enforcement agencies, criminal justice service providers and victim service providers. For example, the International Justice Mission (IJM), an evangelical Christian organization devoted to combating human rights abuse, collaborate with local counterparts in providing assistive services and protection to victims of slave labour and sexual abuse. However, because of the differences in policies and their view towards trafficking and prostitution, IJM has strained, and eventually severed, diplomatic relations with counter-trafficking efforts in Thailand. In addition, IJM failed to work closely with victim service providers, and have no idea how aftercare leads to the protection for minors, and neither do they track where they are sent after repatriation (Thrupkaew, 2009). As such, the lack of a national anti-trafficking coordinating body to promote better cooperation amongst local organizations and to monitor the implementation of national referral mechanisms has greatly hindered the effectiveness of the Protocol. Since trafficking in person by nature is a covert activity involving hidden populations on an international scale, it is difficult to analyse, measure and understand. In light of this, the Protocol could include the creation of a central repository of information on measures taken by States and organizations to combat human trafficking. This database would include national legislations, international criminal organizational structures, and information on global anti-trafficking projects. In the development of this repository, the UN could adapt from the Automated Donor Assistance Mechanism (ADAM) by UNODC, a web-based information sharing system designed to provide project transparency and coordination of technical assistance. Such a platform increases the accessibility and availability of information to State Parties, which would inarguably aid in the identification and prosecution of traffickers as well as their modus operandi, thereby enhancing global efforts against trafficking. Limited research has also been carried out on what trafficked persons want and need in terms of support, rehabilitation and their experience in the participation of the criminal justice process. As Thrupkaew mentions, â€Å"It didn’t cross anyone’s mind to work with sex workers on the law, and although we talk about the minimum standards of assistance, victims are not consulted in the creation of those standards†. As such, additional funding could be provided to NGO’s and social workers to encourage further research in this area, so as to provide useful insights to policy-makers and practitioners. In essence, the main compelling reason why the Trafficking Protocol is ineffective in reducing global human sex trafficking is due to UN’s inability to enforce compliance from Protocol signatories, and stronger monitoring provisions and tighter membership policies should be adopted. That being said, such reforms should proceed with caution, as ensuring compliance need not necessarily lead to revised laws being effective in that country, due to various factors such as their socio-political climate. How effective the Protocol is ultimately boils down on the onus of State Parties on their level of commitment to incorporate and enforce Protocol measures into their domestic law. Only then will we have the slightest chance in eradicating human trafficking. (Word Count: 1543 words) Reference Bales, K. B. (1999).  Disposable people: New slavery in the global economy. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Thrupkaew, N. (2009, September 16). The crusade against sex trafficking. Retrieved February 9, 2017, from Crusade Against Sex Trafficking, https://www.thenation.com/article/crusade-against-sex-trafficking/ UNODC. (2009, October 6). ADAM (automated donor assistance mechanism). Retrieved February 9, 2017, from United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/global-it-products/adam.html

Violence in the Media Essay -- Essays Papers

Violence in the Media What makes the Roadrunner and Coyote cartoons so funny and memorable? Of course, the explosions, hits and falls the Coyote takes while in pursuit of the Roadrunner. Pediatrics, a pediatrician read magazine, wrote an article on the influence violence, such as that in cartoons and other forms of media, has on children from ages 2-18 titled â€Å"Media Violence.† â€Å"Although recent school shootings have prompted politicians and the general public to focus their attention on the influence of media violence, the medical community has been concerned with this issue since the 1950s,† says American Academy of Pediatrics, the author of the article in November of 2001. The article calls for a need for all pediatricians to take a stand on violence in the media and help to make sure their patients are not influenced negatively mentally or physically by violence in the media, using multiple statistics from many publications. â€Å"Media Violence† fails to be persuasiv e, however, due to its failure to show any evidence that its statistics are true. â€Å"American children between 2 and 18 years of age spend an average of 6 hours and 32 minutes each day using media (television, commercial or self-recorded video, movies, video games, print, radio, recorded music, computer, and the Internet),† claims the article citing the Kaiser Family Foundation Report in 1999. This helps to show that media is definitely a major part of a child’s life which would definitely help to make in an influence, but how does a child have time for all of this media usage between school and homework? Another statistic the author uses claims by the time a child is 18, he or she will witness over 200,000 acts of violence on television alone, stated by a Un... ...ph of the section titled Influence. These are statistics of deaths among the pediatric population caused by homicide, suicide and trauma. These statistics are believable and seem to be cold hard facts, but still, even with sympathy for deaths among children, no facts are presented to show that any of these deaths had anything to do with violence in the media. With many scholarly authors, the argument is clear and well fought, but due to the lack of show of studies or reason behind statistics, the argument is lacking believability and ends up coming across as having the same impact as saying that car accidents among women are caused by the increase of caffeine in a woman’s system over the last decade. It could be backed up with statistics of car accidents and evaluating of caffeine intake, but without connecting the two it is unbelievable, just like this article.

Nucor Case Analysis :: Finance Business Essays

Nucor Case Analysis Case summary: Nucor is the world’s largest recycler, recycling over 10 million tons of scrap steel annually. Nucor descended from auto manufacturer Ransom E. Olds, who founded Oldsmobile. The company evolved into the Nuclear Corporation of America, which was involved in the nuclear instrument and electronics business in the 50’s and early 60’s. Over the next five years, Valley Sheet Metal, Vulcraft Corporation and U.S. Semi-conductor Products joined the Nuclear Corporation. After suffering several money-losing years, in 1964 F. Kenneth Iverson was installed as president. Management then decided to integrate backwards into steel making, and in 1972 they adopted the name Nucor. Since then Nucor has established itself as a leader in the steel industry through efficiency and innovation. It now employs more than 7,000 people worldwide and has experienced tremendous growth under its new CEO Daniel R. DiMicco. SWOT Analysis Strengths †¢ Low Cost Producer †¢ Employee/Manager ial Relations Leading Innovator †¢ Low Debt Load †¢ Overall industry leader Weaknesses Dependency on scrap metal Company Profile - Nucor Corporation is the largest steel producer in the United States and had net sales of $11.3 billion in 2004. -Nucor's origins are with auto manufacturer Ransom E. Olds, who founded Oldsmobile and then Reo Motor Cars. -The reorganization resulted in restructuring and eliminating money-losing businesses which left only the steel joist business called Vulcraft -Vulcraft operated in Florence, South Carolina and Norfolk, Nebraska -Management then decided to integrate backwards into steelmaking by building its first steel mill in Darlington, South Carolina in 1968 -In 1972 the company adopted the name Nucor Corporation -By 1985 Nucor was the seventh largest steel company Situational Analysis General External Environment ï  ¶Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sociocultural - Nonunion workers got paid more than 85% of the states they worked in -Recycled more than 10 millions tons of scrap metal annually ï  ¶Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Technological -Began using a twin shell electric furnace to increase production and lower costs and increase market share -Developed and implemented strip casting overseas to eliminate a step in the steel making process ï  ¶Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Demographic -Economic slow down in early 90’s led to a decreased demand for steel -By 1995 the steel industry was the best it was for 20 years ï  ¶Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Economic -Import values decreased for all steel products from 1998 to 1999 -U.S. steel producers facing higher energy costs ï  ¶Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Global -Increasingly tough environmental rules -Cheaper imports for steel Industry Analysis – Nucor has established itself as a leader in the steel industry through efficiency and innovation. Industry Driving Forces of Change ïÆ' ¼Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Increased demand on a global scale due to increase in manufacturing across the world, opposite in U.

Positive Impact In Women On Economic Labor Growth

Economic growth of any country depends on the labor input of men, women and children (where the laws of such countries permit children to work) concerted efforts by all are needed to ensure economic growth, having said that, it is prudent to note without prejudice to women, that men play a big role in economic growth of states that women in most countries in the world. This is evidenced by among others the statistics of the International Labor Organization (I. L. O. ) which ranks men highly. Secondly, it can be seen from the informal sector, small businesses and number of factory workers that men are above women in terms of input towards economic growth. Much that the foregoing is true, it does not mean that our women don’t play a role in economic growth. They on the contrary play a very big role in economic growth of any country/state. They do take time off to raise children, go to work and make life easy for their husbands to go on their work with ease. (They provide a good environment for men to make the economy grow). Finally this paper is all about the role women play in economic growth. It also recognizes the challenges women have to put with while so contributing to economic growth. It also recognizes the challenges women have to put with while so contributing to economic growth. These include, family obligations, negative perceptions against them and Discrimination The survey is to analyze whether women labor ha impact on economic growth. Much has been said about women role in the society and in the economic growth both in short term and long term. This can be said that women have both negative and positive impacts in the economic growth. The results show a negative association between intermittent attachment tot he labor market for fairly related reasons and women occupations prestige in casual terms the results provide evidence that women expecting to lift the labor force tend to choose lower prestige occupation in anticipation of future career interruption. In general, analysis the micro economic implication of cynical and circular movement in the women of the labor force and changes in the intensity of female household labor. This assumes that arise in the women of the labor force stimulates the investments while arise in the intensity of female household labor raised savings. The interaction of these two effects in the context of Keynesian growth cycle model and assess the likelihood of structurally adjusting economy experiencing a recovery through women labor. This analysis shows that for a gender based recovery to succeed the impact of women labor force on investments must be stronger than the impact of raising intensity of female household labor as on saving. In general, high and high middle income countries benefit from women labor for their economic growth. Introduction That women do not contribute to the growth of the economy is a misconception that should not be allowed to stand. The input of women towards economic growth cannot be compared to that of men; women must be given their due as regards matters economic growth. This is because their contribution is hindered by many factors, including maternity leaves where they have to take time off from active employment to give birth, and raise the children, during this time; there are a lot of man hours that literally go to waste. This has to be factored in when evaluating their contribution to economic growth. Family obligations are also a hindrance to their maximum participation and contribution to the economy. Another factor is the discrimination that women face in terms of promotions at the work place, loan advancement from banks and so on. On the flip side of the coin, women play a positive impact in economic growth in terms of being home makers thus giving their men ample time to go about promoting economic growth. This paper seeks out to show the positive impact of women labor in the growth of the economy, and further to elaborate the challenges they face when going about contributing to economic growth. Much has been said about the role women play tot he economy. Whether their role has nay impact on the economy of any country and this has led to the discrimination in the labor market based on gender and distribution of workers among jobs that generates discrimination on labor market outcomes. According to Naomi Wolf 1991, (Every worker brings some physical attractiveness tot he labor market along with other attributes and most are concerned perhaps in inordinately so with this aspect of labor market characteristics. This has led tot he US coming up with anti-discrimination legislation to prevent denying employment on the basis of gender, height, weight and personal appearances. In fact, in recent past many nations and states have been attempting to improve the status of women in their society. An important element in national policies is the improvement of women’s access wider range of jobs, including those at a managerial level so that their impact can be seen in the economic growth. Countries like, Britain have introduced legislation to prevent unfair discrimination against women in their workplace. Although such legislation cannot itself bring changes sought by the government but it can serve to influence male attitudes towards the role of women into e economic growth. Attitudes towards role of women as home maker vary from one country to the other. Some countries emphasize the women’s role as wife/mother and homemaker. Their attitude are biased against women taking on anything other than relatively low-level part time work even education for women tend to be moved towards this assumption about women roles. By comparison, the expectation of men as bread winners are high and thus social action is geared to the education, training and support of men in employment and in economic growth. In such a situation the chances of women labor in economic growth are minimized since they are given jobs such as infant teaching, nursing and social works which has very low impact on economic growth. Much effort has been made recently to remove the obstacles on the roles of women in career development and equal pay. This is aimed at encouraging greater fairness towards women at work. Other efforts to improve the lot of women employee include such developments as women into science and engineering. Arguments It is true that women have positive impact on economic labor growth like Taiwan has used women to develop their economy. Increased employment is a requirement for the survival of capitalism. It is not to be confused with division in gender equality. Economic and powerful domestic interest groups, political stability and access to market provided the conditions for Taiwan to develop a viable economic policy based on experts who led to his growth of their economy. Pursuit of labor intensive export oriented development required a particular labor force one that was relatively large in number, flexible in flow and in expensive. It was only women who were to fit in this job as per the requirements since female labor were cheap, were in large number and were flexible for any job. The ready supply of female labor has reduced labor cost and increased competitiveness in the world market in addition the use of female labor has helped to ease the impact of inflation in core countries like USA, Britain for their economy to grow. The elasticity of female labor relative to male labor is indicated by the greater fluctuations in the women participation rates over time. Most developed countries have used women for their economic growth, since women operates small businesses which are known as small micro-economic enterprises as entrepreneurs. This usually makes a country to grow for example Pakistan has grown due to small micro-economic enterprises which are mostly operated by women. They assist the economy of the country by payment of taxes to the government and job creation. More so, women play a very vital role in economic growth by giving their spouses good support that is by taking care of the young ones and doing household works, which could have been done by their husband hence making their husbands more productive. Counter Arguments In fact women have negative impaction on the economic growth. This can be seen from various perspectives women employment really affects the economy of the country due to their life cycle. Women tend to withdraw from their workplace between the age 25 – 34 years that is after their marriage and the birth of the first child hence, bringing very strong negative impact tot the economy since they will be taking most of the time attending household work and taking after their children. According tot he survey women return tot work after 35 years as their family responsibilities lighten. Also the survey say the majority leave the labor market after 55 years of age perhaps to care for their elderly members of their family, while the male stay in the job market that is, contributing tot he economic growth until they reach the age for retirement and then after they look for part time jobs to work until they are unable to work, that is they contribute tot he economy to their later years. The differential impact of marital status is more obvious when one compares female and male rates while gender makes a difference in labor force participation. The difference is the smallest for a single increased employment is a requirement for the survival of capitalism; it is not to be confused with a victory in gender equality. Most women due to women little level of education affect economic growth of the economy due to most of them work they will be doing will be unskilled, and lower paying hence no impact to the economy of any state. In addition growth is indirectly affected through the impact of gender in equality on investments and the population growth since women population is high in most sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia. This has affected the economy of those countries. According to the review of economic study, July 1989 the relationship between women share of labor force of the process of congestion economic development, and macroeconomic changes associated with structural adjustment it found out that the relationship between long term development and women’s share of the labor force is U-shaped. Women contributes very little to the economy since most of their work are part time or temporary work they take these jobs in order to juggle work with their domestic responsibility that is for children when the are young and for elderly relatives when they are older. Most women who work part time or temporary employment, make counterparts make assumptions that they are not interested in promotion where they will work as senior and contribute more to the economy. Most works are traditionally structured based to suit men who can work full time, hence closing out women who usually need part-time jobs. The implication that if women are to make greater progress in obtaining managerial posts so that they can contribute to the economy as their male counterparts work must then be structures to allow for greater flexibility of working including part time work for mangers so hat women can work and contribute to the economy and it should have a great agreed career breaks, improved arrangements for introduction of women into managers, work Structuring is not only problem for the women to contribute tot he economy. Men prejudice is another. According Flanders whilst pas t experience helps us to decide how to act in the present, it is nevertheless important to see if that experience is still valid. Male in particular needs to examine their current attitude towards employment of women into managerial posts since these attitudes may not always be based on sound evidence of a women performance. There is little evidence to justify why women cannot be given good jobs so that they can contribute to the economic growth. Minor excuses cannot be used unfairly to discriminate women in good jobs. In general women needs and wants and capability arise from assumption that men make about women in the workplace. Some studies have shown that he difference in leadership style and attitude towards work is the general principle behind me towards women taking a wide range of study into account, most of the research indicates that there are few important differences between the performance of a woman and men at work, especially in the situation where they are able to compete in equal terms so woman can bring a very positive impact in economic growth ,if given chances especially if they can be given jobs which men equally do and to be recognized as employee and not as woman . Although in physical strength men are superior to woman being generally taller, large and more muscular . this doesn’t mean they can bring more impact to the economy . Nowadays when purely physical strength is called fro are very rare in the working environment and thus the physical difference between the performance of men and woman are scarcely referent . When it comes to mental, there’s no difference between the two. According to colwills (1995) in her own studies , she comments in relation to verbal skills that :among adults men have an edge in the solving of analogies , but women outperform men in most other verbal tests, including vocabulary and verbal fluency . She notes that visual spatial ability which is important for engineers, architects and air crew ,is higher among men than woman . o too is advanced mathematical ability although at lower levels of performance there is little difference between sexes col wills research suggest that even though woman are verbally superior to men ,the styles of communication they adopt are taken as assign of weakness ,especially by men who she found typically listen less than woman interrupting more and use more aggressive language. Colwill comments that the verbal style associated with woman speech are not only devalued, there is evidence that they are devalued more for woman than for men . The research shows that woman who use disclaimers are seen as less intelligent and less knowledgeable than woman who do not use these feminine style and less intelligent and less knowledgeable than men who do use them† This evidence helps to medicate the deeply in grained made dominance of work environment . it is not a question . it is not a question of men prejudice against woman in management rules but their sheet lack of experience of woman in responsible roles in the workplace . This is a reflection of organizational culture where leadership culture of work has been established by men for men. According to marshall on the topic of woman and organization culture (1993)she says that ,† I see male and female values as qualities to which both sexes have access woman and men are both the same and different Marshall argues that western society has given predominance to make values which have shaped its organization its cultural worms. They are perceived as different to men, women are considered to be inferior. On the issue of woman and leadership, early and Johnson (1990) conducted literature reviews involving 370 comparison of styles between men and woman managers . The conclusions they drew from all the studies they investigated can be summarized as follows: woman generally adopted a more democratic or participate style compared with men who tend to prefer an autocratic or directive style ,in confined settings men tended to be more task oriented than woman ,but in ordinary work situations there were no noticeable differences in task oriented style between the sexes. The difficulties face by women in attempting to break into what has been and still is mainly a mans world has been refereed to as the (glass ceiling) analogy which attempts to describe the subtly transparent barrier that prevents women from gaining access tot he more senior roles in the organizations which eventually leads tot he economic growth. Given the nature of the male dominate over the workplace, what organization can do to achieve greater fairness for women and better balance of sexes in managerial roles in only by involving more women in decision making in setting the company policies. There are several possible actions that can be taken at an organizational level to improve a fairer framework for working conditions. These are more likely to succeed if they are open to both men and women, thus avoiding possible charges either of favoring men for patronizing women. These steps include; going beyond merely supporting the often minimal requirements of legislation; increasing part time opportunities for permanent staff. Making job sharing available, where this may be practicable, given the demands of the job and the skills it require. CONCLUSION In my view it is important to mix both parties that is men and women in economic labor market by so doing no party will be seen as superior or inferior but the total growth of the economic labor growth will be achieved. From above discussion we have seen the role played by women and men, and if they will combine their skills the economy of a country will grow. In simple terms no one party can claim that they contribute more than other party?

Midterm

Description: Preferred language style: English(U.S.) Please double-space the exam, 12 font, and send it to me thru the Assignment Drop Box. There are 3 questions worth a total of 50 points (about 16.6 points a piece). The questions have multiple-parts. Answer all of the parts for each question. 2. CJ experts know that it is difficult to evaluate just how risky an offender`s future behavior might be. What are some of the problems associated with measuring risk? Explain why it is important to try to measure an offender`s risk. How does measuring risk help the CJ system operate more effectively? http://www.francistimko.com/Risk/RISK%20ASSESSMENT.htm#TOC2_4 3. What does it mean to classify probationers? Why do probation departments classify the offenders on their caseloads? Imagine yourself as a probation officer – which classification of probationers would you prefer to supervise and why? HINTS: Write well, edit. DO NOT discuss prisoners, prisons, jails, incarceration. You aren`t in that class. You are in a community corrections class. All of these questions require some reading from you textbook. Don`t try to answer any of the questions without reading the appropriate section of your text. I expect and want you to read yout textbook as you prepare the mid-term. Answer the questions I asked. Don`t answer questions I didn`t ask. Intermediate Sanctions:   Range of sentencing options that, â€Å"fall somewhere between outright imprisonment and simple probationary release back into the community. Michael J. Russel, former director of the NIJ says that â€Å"intermediate punishments are intended to provide prosecutors, judges, and corrections officials with sentencing options that permit them to apply appropriate punishments to convicted offenders while not being constrained   by the traditional choice between prison and probation.   Rather than substituting for prison or probation, however, these sanctions, which include †¦ bridge the gap between those options and provide innovative ways to ensure swift and certain punishment. – From the introduction to James Austin, Michael Jones, and Melissa Boylard, The Growing Use of Jail 1. Some people argue that intermediate sanctions are the best new approach to sentencing offenders in the community.   Define what experts mean by ‘intermediate sanctions’ and what they are designed to do BOTH for offenders and the CJ system.   How do experts justify the need for intermediate sanctions?   Intermediate sanctions are controversial.   Why? â€Å"Intermediate sanctions† is a term used for punishments that bridge the spectrum between prison and probation.   They include intensive supervision probation, work release, house arrest, day fines, asset forfeiture, restitution, community service, boot camp and, occasionally, substance abuse treatment programs. These programs are intended to provide swift and certain punishment while decreasing the economic burden of the prison system, and simultaneously helping society feel that criminals are punished with something more than a slap on the wrist. They are also intended to provide low risk offenders with the intervention and assistance that they need in the hopes of reducing recidivism.   Intermediate sanctions also theoretically decrease the risk that a low level offender will become â€Å"hardened† during incarceration. IS is controversial, for the most part, because research has shown that it does not accomplish the goals that have been set.   Random experiments involving the assignment of offenders to ISP or probation showed no statistical differences in rearrest, but significantly increased technical violations of parole among the offenders enrolled in the intensively supervised program. From that experiment, it is assumed that although ISP programs cost MORE to run, they are no more effective in reducing recidivism than traditional probation programs.   Forfeiture judgments, in which the government confiscates property obtained with illegal money, have been successfully challenged in court.   NIJ department studies of boot camp programs have shown that the programs generally do not last long enough to reduce recidivism.   When the programs did last long enough to have that impact, they offered no real cost benefits to traditional incarceration. 2. CJ experts know that it is difficult to evaluate just how risky an offender`s future behavior might be. What are some of the problems associated with measuring risk? Explain why it is important to try to measure an offender`s risk. How does measuring risk help the CJ system operate more effectively? Although many assessments exist to evaluate an offender’s future risk, all assessments contain some flaws – They assess different values (which may vary, depending on the community’s needs), every prediction instrument contains hidden policy and value decisions, and anyone using a standardized assessment has to pay yearly fees to the proprietary vendor.   For the above reasons, several societies have elected to develop their own assessments – but with this choice comes the problems associated with working the bugs out and making sure that the assessments are accurately measuring that which is intended. It is important to measure an offender’s risk of recidivism as well as his risk of escalating the violence of his attacks in order to adequately protect society while keeping the cost of the criminal justice system to its absolute minimum.   Measuring offender’s risk and adjusting the conditions of probation or intermediate sanctions accordingly theoretically decreases the likelihood of a repeat offense, which physically protects society and assists in keeping the operating costs of the system lower due to NOT having to re-house this particular offender. 3. What does it mean to classify probationers? Why do probation departments classify the offenders on their caseloads? Imagine yourself as a probation officer – which classification of probationers would you prefer to supervise and why? Probationers are classified by risk and need within the first thirty days hat they are assigned to a PO.   The risk is the total of the scores for address changes, employment, substance abuse, attitude, age at first conviction, prior offenses and prior assault offenses.   Each item is weighted and totaled, and the result is combined with the need score. Need scores are based on vocational skills, employment issues, financial stability, family stability, emotional and psychological issues, substance abuse, health, sexual behavior, and officer’s impression.   Probationers are the classified into high, medium, and low categories using predetermined values.   A higher risk assessment is considered to correlate to an increased risk of probation violations.   Probation officers use this risk assessment to determine how to most effectively allocate their resources of time and energy, while attempting to insure that each offender receives sufficient amounts of each to prevent violations of the probation agreement, and to catch any violations that do occur. Although it may seem irrational, I believe that if I were a PO I would prefer to supervise medium to high level risks, simply because the research indicates that – regardless of risk assessment – there is an inverse relationship between repeat violations and the level of supervision offenders receive.   It is my opinion that officers who are assigned low risk offenders may be less vigilant about catching offenses, or that the offenders may feel like they have sufficient opportunity to engage in criminal behavior, which results in a greater danger to potential victims of these crimes.   An officer supervising a released rapist, for example, may find it easier to attain needed resources than one supervising an identity thief, despite the fact that the identity thief is as likely to re-offend – simply because rape is an assault crime. Midterm